What is Linguistics?

What is philology?The mighty one creates an extraordinary perfect creature among the other creatures that is called human being. homosexual being has a luxuriouslyly developed brain since Adam who is the prime(prenominal) mankind came to the egraphicsh. When he was natural, graven image gave him three potential gifts of life in order to live on they were physical needs, instincts, and mind. Mind as one of three potential gifts that human has it is a gift that makes human different from other creatures. With this gift makes mankind is fitting to develop everything that occurred in his life for sake his living. That is a reason why human has been inventing just aboutthing refreshful season by time.Language as the just about signifi erectt part in communication, that is able to connect between the human capacities for culture and terminology and it has been noted as far back as classical antiquity. On Contemporary Linguistics OGrady, et al., wrote thatLanguage is virtuall y things a sy husk of communication, a medium for thought, a vehicle for literary dribbleion, a social institution, a matter for political controversy, a catalyst for nation building. All human beings normally speak at least one run-in and it is hard to imagine much signifi undersidet social, intellectual, or artistic activity taking pasture in its absence. Each of us, hence, has a s orchestrate in under(a)standing something about the spirit and single-valued function of speech communication.In Oxford travel prentices vocabulary of Current side, Hornby stated that Language is the trunk of communication in speech and writing that is commitd by people of a particular coun leaven. Language is a specify of mankinds communication. There atomic number 18 m each different genius unique languages in the world, such(prenominal) as Arabic, Bahasa, Dutch, Japanese, Turkish, Walsh, and English. English is a global language in the world it is extremely growing and bedcover in a whole countries. Except for Japan, beca purpose he stated that his strenuous Japanese language makes him as his honor and his soulfulnessality as Nippon people.Based on the linguists, language divided into deuce move, they be literary works and linguistics. Literature, in cultural context, language is studied as the excessivelyl of literatures birth. Literature is the art of written works. On Oxford Advanced scholarly persons Dictionary of Current English, Hornby wrote that Literature is pieces of writing that atomic number 18 valued as works of art, especially novels, plays and poems (in contrast to technical books and news covers, magazines, etc.).Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, Hornby wrote that Linguistics is the scientific study of language or particular languages a course in applied linguistics.Linguistics is called Generative Linguistics, studying not too a certain language moreover pays attention to analyze and compreh sack every forge, s ound, its changes, function and so on in language. That is why linguistics consists of some major aspects of language. Comm just now linguistics consists into some major subchapters, the archetypal is anthropological linguistics the study of the interrelationship between language and culture. Applied linguistics the application of the methods and result of linguistics in such atomic number 18as as language teaching.Also Historical linguistics the study of how language changes through time the languages relationship to each other. Morphology is the study of the way in which course argon constructed out of little importful units.The Method of the ResearchA method that the writer used in this research is descriptive method, regarding in this research the writer analyzes morphology, especially internal change, suppletion, and reduplication. The research describes in morphosemantic synopsis of their multifariousness, position, function, and substance as written in the aims of the research.MorphologyMorphology is the branch of linguistics that identifying and studying articulates as grammatic units and devise structured that introducing some common morphological phenomenon for modifying of variety of the terms structure in order to express a new meaning and sign a grammatical contrast, such as internal change that a process in which substitutes one non-morphemic segment to some other, suppletion is a morphological process whereby a root morphemes is replacing by a phonological un associate formulate for indicating a grammatical contrast, and a process that duplicating part or all of the fore to apply for stigma a grammatical or semantic contras is called reduplication.Morphology derived from Greek phrases morphe means form and backchat of honor means knowledge, and it is concerned with describing and explaining how the words argon formed it is the branch of linguistics that studies word formation and stem is called Morphology. McMannis, et al., (1987117), in Language Files explains that The study of how words are structured and how they are put together from smaller part. Another linguist, Verhaar (200497) describes Morphology is the branch of linguistics that identifies morphemes as grammatical unit.Spencer et al., in The vade mecum of Morphology (20011) describes that morphology as The study of word structure and words are at the port wine between phonology, syntax and semantics. Then OGrady et al., (1987132) tell that The placement of categories and rules involved in word formation and interpretation is called morphology.Morphology is the analysis, identification, and description of the word structure (words as units in the lexicon are the overpower matter of lexicology).Words and Word StructuresThe most reliable defining property of word is that they are the smallest uninvolved forms found in language. A free form is an element that can occur in clo verbalise off and or whose position with respect to neighbourin g elements is not widely fixed. (Contemporary Linguistics 132)In Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English, Hornby stated that Word is sound or combination of sounds that expresses a meaning and forms an indep interceptent unit of grammar or vocabulary of a language. A speech sound or series of speech sounds that symbolizes and communicates a meaning without being divisible into smaller units capable of independent use. in time word is the smallest of the linguistic units which can occur on its own in speech and writing (Richard et al., 1985311). Further more(prenominal), word formation is the creation of new words. A word can be stated if that word is in the base form. For utilisation, the word singer sing + -er sing is the base form. shape 2.1 Words Consisting of One or More MorphemesMorphemesThe traditional term for the most elemental unit of grammatical form is morpheme from Wikipedia site, it is derived from the Greek word morphe meaning form. Britanica Concise E ncyclopedia (www.answere.com) described that Morpheme as The smallest grammatical unit of speech.McMannis, et al., (Language Files 117), wrote that Morpheme is The negligible linguistic unit has a meaning or grammatical function. While Lyons states that morpheme is Such tokenish units of grammatical analysis of which words may composed are customarily refered to as morpheme (Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics 170).Morpheme ClassificationMorphemes are divided into two basic categories freestanding word and morphemes that are bound or attached ( appended) to other words. Each of these major categories can be subdivided gain ground into two types, those morphemes that mystify more lexical content and those that are more grammatical in function. They are divided into two types gratis(p) Morpheme, is morpheme which can stand alone and it has a meaning. The free morphemes with lexical content represent the major parts of speech, such nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The fr ee grammatical function morphemes include the minor parts of speech, such articles, preposition, and conjunction, among others. Based on McMannis, et al., (Language Files 119) free morpheme is A morpheme which can stand alone as words Abdul Chaers definiton (1994151), free morpheme is morpheme that can appear in the pronunciation without the presence of other morpheme.Bound Morpheme, is the morpheme that cannot stand alone and it has no meaning, but should be bound (attached) to other morpheme to have a meaning. A morpheme that must be attached to another(prenominal) element. (OGrady et al.,1987134) and McMannis stated that bound morpheme is The morpheme which are always attached to some other morpheme. (Language Files 119)AffixesAffix is a letter or sound or group of letters or sounds, which is added to a word that changes the meaning or part of speech of the word. (Richards, et al., 19857) Affix is one or more sounds or letters occurring as a bound form attached to the popning or end of the word base, or accent or inserted within a word or base and serving to produce a differential word or an inflectional form.Different with roots, make upes do not belong to a lexical category and always bound morphemes. Affixes are divided into three types prefix is affix added to the beginning of the word/morpheme (such as un-, re-, en-, etc.) infix is affix inserted into two other morphemes (such as in tagalong -um, -in, etc.) and suffix is affix added to the ending of the word/morpheme (such as -able, -ness, -ing, -ly)BasesOGrady, et al., (Contemporary Linguistics 137) explains that base is A base is the form to which an affix is added. In many case the base is as well the root. For example, the word ducks the element to which the affix s is added corresponds to the words root. Another case, yet, an affix can be added to a unit larger that a root which it happens in word blackened that the historic extend affix ed is added to the verbal base blacken a unit consist ing of root the morpheme black and suffix en.Common Morphological PhenomenaMankinds language makes use of variety of operations or processes that can modify the structure of word, either by adding some element to it or yet by making an internal change, in order to express a new meaning or to mark a grammatical contrast.1. AffixationThe addition of an affix, a process known as adherence, is common in morphological process in language. Linguist distinguishes the affixations process into three typesPrefix, is word or syllable (e.g. co-, en-, ex-, non-, un-, pre-, re-, etc.) placed in front of a word to add or change the meaning of that word, e. g. en in en gamey. Prefix also means word (e. g. Dr, Mrs, Mr, Sir, etc.) that paced before a persons name as a title for someone. (Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 1989976)Infix, is a derivational or inflectional affix appearing in the body of word. (Wikipedia-2010). OGrady et al., (1987139) stated that Infix is a type of affix that occurs within a base. Somehow infixes are rarely pretty hard to find them in English.Suffix, is letter or group added at the end of a word to make another word, e. g. y added to rust to make rusty, or as an inflection, e. g. en in oxen (Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, 19891286). Suffix means an affix occurring at the end of a word, base or phrase.2. CompoundingWords may also be formed by stringing together other words to create compound words (Wikipedia-2010). On Contemporary Linguistics OGrady, et al., (1987143), wrote that Compounding is the combination of lexical categories (nouns, adjectives, verbs, or prepositions) to create a larger word.Compounding in English is unlimited, for examplesFigure 2.2 Samples of Compounding3. internal ChangeOn Contemporary Linguistics OGrady, et al., (1987141), wrote that Internal change is a process that substitutes one non-morphemic segment for another. For example, look at the table below.Figure 2.3 Internal Change in EnglishIn his book, he divid ed internal change intoAblautAblaut is a systematic divergence of vowels in the same root or affix or in related roots or affixes esp. in the Indo-European languages that is usually paralleled by differences in use or meaning. For example, sing (present) sang (past) the term ablaut is often used for vowel alternations that mark grammatical contrast in this way. diaeresisUmlaut is the change of vowel that is caused by partial assimilation to a succeeding sound or that occurs as a reflex of the former presence of a succeeding sound which has been lost or altered (as to mark pluralization in goosegeese or mousemice). Umlaut involves the fronting of a vowel under the influence of a front vowel in the following syllable.Despite the internal modifications above, the following describes another pattern of internal change (Language Files 131)The usual pattern of plural formation that is To add an infectional morpheme, some English plurals make an internal modification man but men.The usual pattern of past and past participle formation is To add an affix, but some verbs also show an internal change for example ring, rang, rung sing, sang, sung, etc.4. SuppletionContemporary Linguistics, (1987142), explained that Suppletion is a morphological process whereby a root morpheme is replaced by a phonologically unrelated form in order to indicate a grammatical contrast.From Wikipedia confirmed that In linguistics and etymology, suppletion is traditionally understood as the use of one word as the inflected form of another word when the two words are not cognate.Suppletion is the replacement of one stem with another, resulting in an allomorph of a morpheme which has no phonological similarity to the other allomorphs. The statement took from SIL International.For an example of this terrific phenomenon in English is the use of went as the past tense form from the verb go, or was and were as the past tense forms from be. In some cases, it is hard to differ between suppletion and internal change as in conceptualize (thought) and seek (sought).5. ReduplicationAnother magnificent common morphological process in certain language (but not English) is reduplication which duplicates all or part of the base to which it applies to mark a grammatical or semantic contrast. (Contemporary Linguistics 143)The process of reduplication is dividing into two phenomena types that usually are used in English, the first one is full reduplication and another one is partial reduplication.Full reduplication is the repetition of the entire words. For examples in Indonesian language orang (man) orang-orang (all sorts of men), anak (child) anak-anak (all sort of children) it is used to indicate intensity.Partial reduplication is copies only part of the word. For example in Tagalog language takbuh (run) tatakbuh ( result run), lakad (walk) lalakad ( pull up stakes walk).The repeating of parts of words to produce new forms is called reduplication. Producing new coinages have often app eared at times of national confidence when an outgoing also playful nature is expressed in language, for example during 1920s following the First World War in which when many nonsense word pairs were coined such as the bees knees, heebie-jeebies, etc.The linguists believe that the introduction of such terms begin with Old English and continues today. Willy-nilly, riff-raff, helter-skelter, arsy-versy (a form of vice-versa), hocus-pocus all date from the 16th century. Today, new coinage word is coming up to date we have bling-bling, boob-tube and hip-hop. The other example of reduplication are ding-dong, see-saw, tick-tock, zig-zag, blah-blah, bye-bye, choo-choo, chop-chop.hypertension Signs, assay Factors, Treatments uplifted blood pressure Signs, Risk Factors, TreatmentsContents (Jump to)IntroductionAnatomy, physiology and Pathophysiology of hypertensionRisk factors that are associated with hypertensioni. Age.ii. Gender.iii. Activity trainiv. Dietv. takevi. Family registerSign s and symptoms of hypertensionDiagnostics and tests for hypertensionTreatment of hypertension1. Change of life styles2. The use of medicineComplications that may result from hypertensionHow hypertension process affects the body systemCirculatory systemDigestive systemNerves systemEndocrine systemRespiratory systemNecessary commissariat for hypertension moved(p) roles readying and teaching on patient discharge.ReferencesIntroductionIn his article, Hypertension Guide may Affect 7.4 Million, Gina Kolata observes that approximately two-thirds of American aged above 60 years are likely to server from hypertension. This is supported by the fact that thither are so many people who are admitted to various hospitals suffering from hypertension. Some people have also been admitted to various nursing homes where they are on receiving with medication (Kolata, 2013, December 19).A good example is H.K., who is 80 years old widow female. She was born in India and she only speaks one language , Punjabi. H. K was admitted to a nursing home on 06/07/2013 due to depressive perturb requiring assistance with ADLs. She is on DNR code status and no allergies.I believe she chose for DNR code given that she is at her advanced age. However, it is worth nothing that the decision for a DNR code is not the easiest one any person can make in their lives. Under these instructions, it is evident that H.K treatment only involves the treatment of symptoms that are as a result of throe or rather shortness of breath to just facilitate comfort. This however does not in any way prolong her life. Given her condition, H. K is in truth suffering from hypertension.In reference to the case study above, this paper pull up stakes be giving a comprehensive and agreeable facts about hypertension. In support of these facts, this paper will majorly focus on various aspects of the disease.In particular, the paper will be looking at the kind and physiology as intumesce as the venture factors that are associated with hypertension. In addition, this paper will also mention the signs and symptoms, diagnostics, treatment and complications of this disease. Moreover, this paper will go further and indicate how the disease process affects the body system, the fodder information that is necessary for the patients as salutary as the required planning and teaching on patient discharge.Anatomy, physiology and Pathophysiology of hypertensionCommonly known as tall blood draw, hypertension is a prominent blood pressure which clinically is considered to be racyer than cxl/90 mm/Hg. Once blood pressure in the arteries is lavishly then the stock ticker has a big task of pumping blood throughout the blood vessels (Culpepper, 1983). Basically, the two types of blood pressure that are measured include systolic and diastolic measures.Systolic measure is done when the heart contracts after a lambaste in order to let blood out of the ventricular while diastolic measure takes place during the relaxation of the ventricular, and thus, being filled with blood. Hypertension occurs when thither is an increase resistance of blood flow, even though the cardiac effects remains the same.High blood pressure is normally classified into two crucial/primary hypertension and secondary hypertension. In comparison of these two, primary hypertension does not need any serious medical attention but then a lot of consideration must be channeled towards secondary hypertension because it can result to various effects on the body (Wylie, 2005).There are many pathophysiology mechanisms that are involved in the development of primary hypertension. These include peripheral resistance as fountainhead as cardiac output. These two are responsible for arterial pressure. Meanwhile, heart rate and bezant volume are the two determinant of cardiac output. Stroke volume is also influenced by two factors. These include myocardial contractility in conjunction with the vascular compartment. On the oth er hand, peripheral resistance occurs as a result of the structural changes of the arteries and arterioles (CEACCP, n.d.).Risk factors that are associated with hypertensionNumerous diseases have many adventureiness factors that in one way or another contribute or rather lead to these diseases. Likewise, there a number of risk factors that are known to be associated with hypertension. Some of these factors includesAge.This is one most-valuable risk factor that is associated with hypertension. The more advanced in terms of age an individual becomes, the higher the chances of developing hypertension.Gender. custody forms the large portion of high blood pressure as opposed to femalesActivity levelIndividuals who engages in a lot of exercises and who are more active in their old age are less(prenominal) likely to server from hypertension as compared to those people who are in an inactive physically.Diet table salt has been found to have a higher impact of contributing to high blood pr essuresmokingSmoking is a risk factor in many diseases. Likewise it is also a risk factor and can contribute to hypertension. So people are highly encouraged to quit smoking.Family historyEven though research is still being done to confirm the preliminary index numbers that, an individual who comes from a family which has been diagnosed with hypertension has a high probability of suffering from this disease (Guyton Hall, 2006).Signs and symptoms of hypertensionThere are a number of signs and symptoms that are associated with high blood pressure. However, it is important to note that there are no restrain symptoms that solely can be considered or linked to hypertension. The situation is even made difficult by the fact that most signs that can be deemed to associate with high blood pressure can also result from normal blood pressures. Some of these symptoms include fatigue, dizziness, nose-bleeding as well as severe care (Hypertension, n.d).As it can be observed, the above symptom s also occurs in other diseases as well. So when these symptoms bring showing up, a person suffering from high blood pressure will also shows some other signs such as vomiting, restlessness, having a blurred vision as well as shortness of breath.Hypertension can now be more suspicious if a person shows other signs like, variation in the mental abilities that is characterized by being confused and eventually lede to a coma. Other signs that will indicate hypertension includes having a heart attack or heart failure, experiencing a lot of pain in the chest, fluids in the lungs, and severe swelling of the brain (Hypertension, n.d). These symptoms are also accompanied by kidney failure, scathe of the brain, heart as well as the eyes.Diagnostics and tests for hypertensionThere are many examinations that can be used to indicate if a patience with above mentioned symptoms and signs is suffering from high blood pressure. The first step is to measure the blood pressure levels. This is done through a series of steps as indicated belowA patient is required to sit down with both feet on the floor for at least five minutes. The patients arm should also rest peacefully on the weapons of the examination chair.Once the patient is sited relaxing on the chair, a cuff that is attached to the dial is then rubbed around his/her arm. It is important to note that it is the upper arm and not the tear down arm. The purpose of dial is actually to show or rather indicate the level of blood pressure.The responsible professional who in most cases is the nurse pumps the cuffs so that blood flow can be stopped. Once this is done, the nurse slowly and cautiously loosens the cuff and with the aid of a stethoscope the nurse listens to the blood pressure particularly in the elbow. This is what is refereed to systolic step of blood pressure.Eventually the nurse loosens the cuff further and blood start flowing normally until the heart beat cannot be heard through the elbow. This is what is c alled the diastolic tests.If through these test, there is a convincing indication that indeed the blood pressure of the patient is high, then definitely the doctor will indicate that the patient should return for two to three more similar tests so that the blood pressure can be confirmed (Hypertension, n.d).There are other tests that can be carried out to supplements the tests above. These include the test for glucose, urine examination, blood tests for determination of potassium levels as well as examination of the kidney functionality (Black, 1999).Treatment of hypertensionGenerally, there are two approaches that can be used to treat hypertension. These include change of lifestyles as well as well as the use of medicine.Change of lifestylesThere are a number of lifestyle changes that can be adopted and inspection and repair in dealing with high blood pressure. These include (a) try as much as possible to reduce body weight. This is because it has been found that high blood press ure is directly proportion to the rate of increase of body weight. In addition, losing weight allows the various medication that are taken to work more efficiently and effectively (b) eating a well-balanced diet that is rich of fruits with reduced salt and fats (c) being active in participating various physical activities. These activities should be undertaken on a daily basis and not just on the weekends (d) reduce alcohol, caffeine as well as tobacco as much as possible (e) vitiate all forms of pressure or stress in this case because actually they tend to increase the level of blood pressure (Diseases and Conditions, n.d).The use of medicineHypertension can also be treated medically using the following drugs the use of beta-blockers to reduce rate at which the heart beats, use of angiotensin, Diuretics and alpha1-adrenergic (Hypertension, n.d).Complications that may result from hypertensionThere are numerous complications that may occur due to hypertension. The major common ones include thickening of blood vessel, this will lead to coronary heart disease, heart failure because of exhaustion of the heart due to the increased stretch along of pumping blood, hypertension also increases chances of cardiac arrhythmias.Hypertension can also lead to stroke as well as diabetes as a result of some drugs that are used to treat it. Men are likely to suffer from sexual dysfunction while females who have high blood pressure have been found to have problems during pregnancies. In addition, blood vessels that supply the brain may be dishonored leading to dementia (Simon, 2013)How hypertension process affects the body systemCirculatory systemOne of the most affected body system as a result of hypertension is the circulatory system. This is because, when the heart pumps blood too fast, it may rupture capillaries and arteries (Simon, 2013).Digestive systemThe digestive system is also affected by high blood pressure. This results due to the fact that, capillaries and arteri es are responsible for supplying the stomach with the necessary blood for digestion to take place but once they have been damaged, then the stomach which is part of digestive system is not able to carry its functions well (Simon, 2013).Nerves systemThe nerves system is also affected by high blood pressure. This occurs due to the fact that arteries are responsible for supplying blood to the brain. If they get damaged due to the high blood pressure from the heart then the functions of the nerves system are impair and this may definitely lead to dementia (Gregson, 2001).Endocrine systemThe internal secretion system actually has a great contribution to secondary hypertension. This is because, hyperaldosteronism, Cushings syndrome as well as pheochromocytoma which are endocrine diseases have been found to contribute to high blood pressure (Gregson, 2001).Respiratory systemThe respiratory system is also affected by high blood pressure because of the damage that may be caused to the kidn ey. despicable material flow to muscle tendons as the functionality of different blood vessels is impaired will lead to indecent effects on the muscular system (Gregson, 2001).Necessary nutrition for hypertension patientsThe major consideration of nutrition is to try and reduce weight. Thus eating more fish, foods which contain fiber, vegetables and fruits is an ideal diet for patients suffering from high blood pressure. In addition all daily fat products should be avoided. Moreover, foods that are rich in calcium, magnesium and potassium are also highly recommended. On top of that, avoid red set up at all cost but then white meet from turkey and chicken is recommendable (Culpepper, 1983).Planning and teaching on patient discharge.Once a hypertension patient has been discharged, it is better for him/her to follow some guidelines which in this case include taking medicines as directed by the physician, being taught to know the facts of the disease. This will assist the patient to prepare himself psychologically and in the process avoid all forms of stress which may arise.Another important thing that the patient must observe also is to constantly engage in various physical activities. This will also help the patient decrease his blood pressure. The patient also needs to be keen with regard to the foods he will be taking and try to avoid a lot of salt as well as any fat related foods (Diseases and Conditions, n.d).An important fact also the patience should be taught is some symptoms like severe headache, weakness in lower or upper arm, trouble when breathing and difficulties when speaking. Once the patient has experienced these signs, he should call for help immediatelyReferencesBJA CEACCP. (n.d.). Hypertension pathophysiology and treatment. Retrieved March 3, 2014, from http//ceaccp.oxfordjournals.org/content/4/3/71.fullBlack, E. R. (1999). Diagnostic strategies for common medical problems (2nd ed.). Philadelphia American College of Physicians.Culpepper, W. S . (1983). Cardiac anatomy and function in juvenile hypertension. The American Journal of Medicine, 75(3), 57-61.Diseases and Conditions. (n.d.). 10 ways to lock high blood pressure without medication. Retrieved February 27, 2014, from http//www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/high-blood-pressure/in-depth/high-blood-pressure/art-20046974?pg=2Gregson, S. R. (2001). High blood pressure. Mankato, Minn. LifeMatters.Guyton, A. C., Hall, J. E. (2006). Textbook of medical physiology (11th ed.). Philadelphia Elsevier Saunders.Hypertension/high blood pressure health centre. (n.d.). High blood pressure symptoms Signs of hypertension, malignant hypertension. Retrieved March 2, 2014, from http//www.webmd.boots.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/guide/high-bp-symptomsHypertension/high blood pressure health centre. (n.d.). High blood pressure. Retrieved March 2, 2014, from http//www.webmd.boots.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/guide/blood-pressure-treatmentKolata, G. (2013, December 19) . Hypertension Guide May Affect 7.4 Million. The New York Times. Retrieved March 3, 2014, from http//www.nytimes.com/2013/12/20/health/hypertension-guide-may-affect-7-4-million.html?_r=0Moore, R. (2001). The high blood pressure solution a scientifically proven program for preventing strokes and heart disease (2nd ed.). Rochester, VT mend Arts Press.Simon, H. (2013, June 27). Health Guide. High Blood Pressure. Retrieved March 2, 2014, from http//www.nytimes.com/health/guides/disease/hypertension/complications.htmlWylie, L. (2005). Essential anatomy and physiology in maternity care (2nd ed.). Edinburgh Elsevier, Churchill Livingstone.